{"id":904,"date":"2020-03-12T04:44:26","date_gmt":"2020-03-12T04:44:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/ami.advancedrenaleducation.com\/wparep\/?post_type=article&p=904"},"modified":"2025-05-09T17:34:22","modified_gmt":"2025-05-09T22:34:22","slug":"glycemic-control-in-pd","status":"publish","type":"article","link":"https:\/\/ami.advancedrenaleducation.com\/wparep\/article\/glycemic-control-in-pd\/","title":{"rendered":"Glycemic Control in PD"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction\u00a0<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n

Diabetes Mel<\/span><\/span>l<\/span><\/span>itus (DM)<\/span><\/span>\u00a0is a potent cardiovascular risk factor in the general population as well as in those undergoing maintenance dialysis<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(1\u20135)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>G<\/span><\/span>lycemic contro<\/span><\/span>l,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>as measured by glycosylated hemoglobin (A1c)<\/span><\/span>\u00a0i<\/span><\/span>s a predictor of cardiovascular complications, including myocardial infarctions and hospitalizations for coronary artery disease<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(6,7)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Clinical trials have shown that tight glycemic control decreases the risk of developing retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy in the general populati<\/span><\/span>on.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>However<\/span><\/span>,<\/span><\/span>\u00a0there are\u00a0<\/span><\/span>limited\u00a0<\/span><\/span>studies that\u00a0<\/span><\/span>have\u00a0<\/span><\/span>investigated the impact of glycemic control in diabetic patients\u00a0<\/span><\/span>especially\u00a0<\/span><\/span>on peritoneal dialysis (PD)<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(8\u201310)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0Nonetheless, it\u00a0<\/span><\/span>has been shown<\/span><\/span>\u00a0that diabetes mellitus (DM) is a significant cause of kidney failure<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(11)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Expert groups have recommended that diabetic dialysis patients should follow the American Diabetes Association guidelines; however, there is no consistent evidence to support these recommendations for patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), and the data for patients treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD) are even more limited<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(11\u201313)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Measures of glycemic control in PD patients<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n

Current parameters used to assess glycemic control in diabetic patients include, but are not limited to, blood or capillary plasma glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and glycated albumin<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(14,15)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is the standard measure for glucose monitoring in patients without kidney impairment. According to NKF-KDOQI guidelines, currently recommended HbA1c targets in the setting of CKD are no different from those for the general diabetic population; that is, <7.0%, although the seminal glycemic control trials in type 1 and type 2 diabetes have excluded patients with significantly decreased kidney\u00a0<\/span><\/span>function\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(11)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>There are several issues unique to the dialysis population that mandates a separate examination of the glycemic control on outcomes in this population. Chronic kidney disease is associated with insulin resistance and, in advanced kidney disease, decreased insulin degradation<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(16)<\/span><\/span><\/span>. Moreover, it<\/span><\/span>\u00a0is\u00a0<\/span><\/span>difficult to accurately assess glycemic control in\u00a0<\/span><\/span>the\u00a0<\/span><\/span>ESRD<\/span><\/span>\u00a0population due to alterations in insulin metabolism and changes in red blood cell survival that lead to competing effects on measurements of glycemic control<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(16,17)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Importance of glycemic control<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n

Duong et al<\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0examined mortality and its predictability in 2<\/span><\/span>,<\/span><\/span>798 diabetic\u00a0<\/span><\/span>peritoneal dialysis\u00a0<\/span><\/span>patients by measuring HbA1c levels<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(9)<\/span><\/span><\/span>. They determined that poor glycemic control was associated with higher mortality in\u00a0<\/span><\/span>peritoneal dialysis\u00a0<\/span><\/span>patients, and that moderate to severe hyperglycemia was associated with a higher death risk. Data from\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Yoo<\/span><\/span>\u00a0and colleagues support these results<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(10)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Peritoneal dialysis<\/span><\/span>\u00a0can result in a large amount of glucose absorption from the dialysate<\/span><\/span>; therefore,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>strict glycemic control may be difficult in\u00a0<\/span><\/span>PD\u00a0<\/span><\/span>patients<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(22,23)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Concerning peritoneal dialysis associated infections,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>p<\/span><\/span>oor glycemic control has\u00a0<\/span><\/span>not been established as a specific risk facto<\/span><\/span>r; however<\/span><\/span>, it is\u00a0<\/span><\/span>known to\u00a0<\/span><\/span>increase the risk of infections in\u00a0<\/span><\/span>the general<\/span><\/span>\u00a0DM<\/span><\/span>\u00a0population\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(24)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0Recurrent peritonitis and inflammatory processes can increase peritoneal transport rates and cause rapid absorption of glucose from the peritoneal cavity which may<\/span><\/span>,<\/span><\/span>\u00a0in turn, cause deterioration of glycemic control<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(25)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0This could lead to reduced ultrafiltration<\/span><\/span>,<\/span><\/span>\u00a0requiring administration of increasingly hypertonic\u00a0<\/span><\/span>peritoneal dialysis\u00a0<\/span><\/span>solutions and, consequently, the perpetuation of hyperglycemia. It is suggested that glycemic control, measured by HbA1c, is not associated with preservation of residual renal function in diabetic\u00a0<\/span><\/span>peritoneal dialysis\u00a0<\/span><\/span>patients, at least in the first year on PD as reported in\u00a0<\/span><\/span>a study by\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Sung et al\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(26)<\/span><\/span><\/span>. However, this study included only 89 patients and was not sufficiently powered to detect a difference.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Based on the currently available evidence from clinical studies,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>it is not known if better glycemic control preserves residual function<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(20)<\/span><\/span><\/span>.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Regular and frequent monitoring of blood glucose, frequent and effective adjustment of therapy, and early diagnosis and treatment of concurrent conditions are essential.<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Recommendations for glycemic control in PD<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n

The KDOQI guidelines recommend that hyperglycemia be managed in diabetic patients\u00a0<\/span>regardless of kidney function status\u00a0<\/span>(11)<\/span>. Intensive treatment of hyperglycemia can help to prevent or delay kidney disease<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(11)<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0The KDOQI workgroup suggests maintaining pre<\/span>–<\/span>prandial capillary glucose levels within 90-130 mg\/dL (5.0-7.2 mmol\/L), with postprandial sugars below 180 mg\/dL (10 mmol\/L) and an HbA1c of\u00a0<\/span>approximately\u00a0<\/span>7%, which is consistent with the American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(14)<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>The ADA also recommends that\u00a0<\/span>blood sugar monitoring be conducted at least three times per day, before meals and at bedtime<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

When compared to diabetic hemodialysis patients, diabetic peritoneal dialysis patients demonstrated better outcomes in a study by Lin et al<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(27)<\/span>. However,\u00a0<\/span>Vonesh<\/span>\u00a0et al<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0showed that peritoneal dialysis was favored in younger diabetic patients while hemodialysis was favored in older diabetic patients\u00a0<\/span>(28)<\/span>. These studies demonstrate that\u00a0<\/span>any given\u00a0<\/span>dialysis therapy is not necessarily recommended over another and must be tailored to each individual patient. In order\u00a0<\/span>to\u00a0<\/span>achieve osmotic removal of retained fluid,\u00a0<\/span>peritoneal dialysis<\/span>\u00a0fluids contain supraphysiological concentrations of glucose. Time coupled with progressive loss of diuresis from the failing kidneys results in the average glucose concentration of the\u00a0<\/span>peritoneal dialysis\u00a0<\/span>prescription being increased. The potential for this glucose load to cause problems such as obesity<\/span>,<\/span>\u00a0hyperlipidemia<\/span>,<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>potential<\/span>\u00a0worsening\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>insulin resistance<\/span>, and blood glucose level fluctuations has led to the production of<\/span>\u00a0biocompatible alternatives\u00a0<\/span>PD solutions<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(29)<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Biocompatible solutions\u00a0<\/span>have been shown to\u00a0<\/span>alleviate undesirable local and<\/span>\/<\/span>or systemic effects while providing necessary therapy<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(30,31)<\/span>. Some biocompatible PD solutions use a glucose polymer, or amino acids as the alternative osmotic agent instead of glucose, thus preventing or minimizing glucose absorption during treatment<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(32,33)<\/span>. Two randomized clinical studies with at least 1 year of follow-up using a\u00a0<\/span>polyglucose<\/span>-based PD solution in diabetic patients showed significant improvements in glycemic control and reduced insulin requirements<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(34,35)<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0However, no effect on survival or mortality was found in several randomized controlled trials<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(36,37)<\/span>.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Glycemic control through<\/span>\u00a0pharmaceutical\u00a0<\/span>intervention is a part of therapy\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>diabetic\u00a0<\/span>peritoneal dialysis<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>patients<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(25,38\u201347)<\/span>. Doses and regimens\u00a0<\/span>tend to vary and\u00a0<\/span>should be adjusted based on frequent monitoring<\/span>\u00a0by the physician,<\/span>\u00a0with the aim of achieving target goals of glycemic control.\u00a0<\/span>The presence of insulin resistance<\/span>\u00a0is a prevalent metabolic feature in chronic kidney disease (CKD)<\/span>\u00a0and it should be considered<\/span>\u00a0when evaluating therapy\u00a0<\/span>(48)<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span>The clinical impacts of insulin resistance<\/span>\u00a0in this setting are numerous, including endothelial dysfunction, increased cardiovascular mortality, muscle wasting, and possibly i<\/span>nitiation and progression of CKD<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(49)<\/span>.\u00a0 Regarding<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>intraperitoneal (IP)<\/span>\u00a0v<\/span>ersus<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>subcutaneous (SC)<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>insulin administration,\u00a0<\/span>a meta-analysis of three studies found that g<\/span>lycemic control<\/span>, as<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>determined by HbA1c in diabetic CAPD patients<\/span>,<\/span>\u00a0was comparable or better with IP v<\/span>ersus<\/span>\u00a0SC\u00a0<\/span>insulin\u00a0<\/span>;\u00a0<\/span>however<\/span>, the dose required was more than two-fold higher in the IP treatment<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>(45)<\/span>.\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

Overall<\/span>, therapy for glycemic control in\u00a0<\/span>peritoneal dialysis<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>patients should be individualized according to patient preference, compliance, peritoneal transport status<\/span>,<\/span>\u00a0and coexisting co-morbid conditions.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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References:<\/strong><\/h4>\n
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  48. Koppe, L., Pelletier, C. C., Alix, P. M., Kalbacher, E., Fouque, D., Soulage, C. O., Guebre-Egziabher, F. Insulin resistance in chronic kidney disease: new lessons from experimental models.Nephrol. Dial. Transplant<\/i>29,\u00a01666\u201374 (2014). www.ncbi.nlm.gov\/pubmed\/24286973<\/li>\n
  49. Teta, D. Insulin Resistance as a Therapeutic Target for Chronic Kidney Disease.J. Ren. Nutr.<\/i>(2014). doi:10.1053\/j.jrn.2014.10.019 www.ncbi.nlm.gov\/pubmed\/25511524<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u00a0 \u00a0 PN 102478-01 Rev A 3\/2020<\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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